This is the largest genus of sea snakes with about 28-30 species, found in an arc of water from Iran and Oman in the west running along the coast of the Indian subcontinent and SE Asia into Indo-Malaysian, Indo-Australian and Pacific waters. Two of the species are found in fresh water habitats, but the vast majority are marine, their habitat ranging from reef flats and the water above seagrass beds to the deep water beyond reefs. They are also mostly if not all highly venomous, and at least one species becomes aggressive if removed from the water.
Cogger and Rasmussen et al give the characteristics of the genus as follows: maxillary bone not extending forward beyond the palatine; palatine straight; small ventrals, never foliform, scarcely wider than adjacent body scales; 4 or more solid maxillary teeth behind the fang; poison-fang followed after a diastema by 1-18 teeth; nasal shields in contact with each other; anterior chin shields large and mostly bordering the mental groove; head shields enlarged and regular; mental triangular, broader than long; nostrils superior; ventrals small, distinct throught and normally entire. The often small head and elongated narrow front body serve as an adaptation for the eel specialists in this genus to prey on eels in their holes. Swann and Wilson note that some species are only discernible on the basis of skull and tooth differences.
Cogger noted that in respect of the ventral scales, H. gracilis was the exception, its ventrals being all divided posteriorly. This may be the reason why some authorities (eg www.catalogueoflife.org) do not recognise this species as a member of Hydrophis, referring it instead to the genus Microcephalophis. More recently eight Hydrophis species (coggeri, cyanocinctus, czeblukovi, elegans, melanocephalus, pacificus, semperi and spiralis) have been placed into a new genus, Leioselasma.
| QUICK INDEX | ||
| H. atriceps, Black-Headed Seasnake | H. belcheri, Faint-Banded Seasnake | H. bituberculatus |
| H. brooki | H. caerulescens, Dwarf Seasnake | H. coggeri, Slender-Necked Seasnake |
| H. cyanocinctus, Annulated Seasnake | H. czeblukovi | H. elegans, Elegant Seasnake |
| H. fasciatus, Banded Seasnake | H. inornatus | H. klossi, Kloss's Seasnake |
| H. laboutei | H. lamberti | H. lapemoides |
| H. macdowelli | H. mamillaris | H. melanocephalus |
| H. melanosoma | H. obscurus | H. ornatus |
| H. pacificus, Pacific Seasnake | H. parviceps | H. semperi |
| H. sibauensis | H. spiralis, Yellow Sea Snake | H. stricticollis |
| H. torquatus | H. vorisi |
| Scientific Name | Common Name | Distribution | Size | Notes |
| Hydrophis | ||||
| H. atriceps | Black-Headed Seasnake | SE Asia and Indo-Malaysia, from Thailand as far as Australia | Avg TL 1m | A piscivorous species, not frequently encountered in Australian waters, where it occurs between Darwin and the New Guinea coast. Scalation details: head shields regular and large; 3rd & 4th supralabials contact eye; 1 preocular, 2 postoculars, 2 anterior temporals; nuchal scales keeled; body scales imbricate; 35-49 rows at midbody; 323-452 ventrals, scarcely wider than adjacent body scales and mostly undivided. Other: 5-6 solid maxillary teeth follow fang; head very small; anterior part of body slender, posterior part deep and greatly compressed. Coloration: anteriorly pale fawn, brown or yellowish (Wilson & Swann describe it simply as "yellowish-brown"); young have 50-70 black crossbands which may form complete rings; in adults this pattern may be reduced to a series of dorsal blotches. Reproduction: litters of 1-7 young recorded [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. belcheri | Faint-Banded Seasnake, Belcher's Hydrophis | Philippines, New Guinea, Australia (Queensland) | TL 1m | Cogger records that this species is only known from New Guinea, but www.catalogueoflife.org gives Australia as part of its range: however, Wilson and Swann do not mention it either. Scalation details: single supralabial contacts eye; 32-36 rows at midbody; 278-313 ventrals, posteriorly undivided. Other: <10 maxillary teeth follow fang; 14-17 pterygoid teeth; anterior part of maxilla not arched upwards, so that tip of fang projects well below a line connecting the tips of the solid maxillary teeth. Coloration: dorsally grey; about 60 black crossbands on body, broadest dorsally but almost fading on the belly; ventrally pale grey [SOURCE: Cogger, Rasmussen et al]. |
| H. bituberculatus | ?? | Scalation details: 25-29 scale rows at neck, 43-50 at midbody [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al] | ||
| H. brooki | Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia (Kalimantan) | Scalation details: 328-414 ventrals [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al]. | ||
| H. caerulescens | Dwarf Seasnake | Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand, China (Guangdong, Shandong), Indian Ocean, South China Sea south to Indonesia (Moluccas), Australia (Queensland) | Avg TL 60cm | A feeder on bottom-dwelling fish such as eels and gobies [Wilson & Swann]. All Australian individuals have been found from SE Gulf of Carpentaria. Scalation details: head shields regular and enlarged; 3rd & 4th supralabials contact eye; body scales keeled and overlapping; 31-43 rows at neck, 41-54 rows at midbody; 266-287 ventrals, scarcely wider than adjacent body scales and mostly undivided except anteriorly. Other: 12 or more solid maxillary teeth follow fang; 22 or more dentary teeth; head small; anterior part of body slender, posterior part robust and laterally compressed. Coloration: dorsally blue-grey; head blackish; body has 41-43 blackish blotches or transverse bands which may be divided or alternating along either side of the vertebral line; tail may have 7-9 dark bands or be black with 4 pale blotches on its dorsal edge. Reproduction: litters of up to 13 young recorded [SOURCE: Cogger, Rasmussen et al, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. coggeri | Slender-Necked Seasnake | Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, Vanuatu | Avg TL 1m | This species is fairly adaptable: western populations apparently inhabit deep waters beyond reef edges, while eastern individuals are often encountered on reef flats and in lagoons, especially over sea grasses [Cogger]. In Australian waters it is common in the Timor Sea and is also found in the Coral Sea. It feeds on eels. Scalation details: head shields regular and enlarged; usually only 3rd & 4th supralabials contact eye; body scales imbricate; 29-34 rows at midbody; 280-360 ventrals, scarcely wider than adjacent body scales except anteriorly and mostly undivided. Other: 5-8 solid maxillary teeth follow fang; 14-15 pterygoid teeth; 22 or more dentary teeth; head small; anterior part of body slender, posterior part moderately deep and compressed. Coloration: overall coloration is pale yellow with 28-40 blackish crossbands in juveniles; this becomes an overall olive-grey in adults with the black bands paler and more diffused at the edges. The bands are usually widest dorsally and ventrally and roughly equal in width to the interspaces; juveniles have black head with conspicuous yellow markings on snout and postocular regions; this changes to olive-grey with darker markings in adults. Reproduction: litters of up to 13 young recorded [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. cyanocinctus | Annulated Seasnake, Black-Tailed Hydrophis | Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, China (Hainan, Shandong Liaoning), Taiwan, South China and East China Seas Philippines (Luzon waters and Visayan Sea), Korea, Indonesia (Java, Aru Islands, New Guinea) | SVL 1¼-1¾m; max 1.8m | Alcala recorded this species as common in Philippine waters, and Daniel calls it the commonest sea snake from the Persian Gulf to Baluchistan. More recently some authorities have placed this species in its own genus, Leioselasma (see JCVI reptile database for details). Scalation details: 7-8 supralabials, of which 4th is below centre of eye; 2 superimposed anterior temporals; anterior chin-shields enlarged and border mental groove; scales on thickest part of body have rounded or bluntly pointed tips and are distinctly or feebly imbricate; 36-47 rows at midbody; Rasmussen et al cite 292-404 ventrals, Alcala, 300-390. Other: snouth broadly rounded; tip of fang projects conspicuously below a line connecting the tips of solid maxillary teeth; head moderate and not or scarcely distinct from neck; body elongate; anterior part of body round, posterior part compressed. Coloration (in preservative): dorsal pattern of alternating light and dark bands; 41-70 dark bands; dorsally the black bands are widest, but laterally the light bands are wider; head is black in young but turns dorsally yellowish brown; chin lighter; tip of tail black, except for ventral side [SOURCE: Alcala, Daniel, Rasmussen et al]. |
| H. czeblukovi | Geometrical Seasnake | Australia (NW WA, NT) and New Guinea (Arafura Sea) | Max TL 1.2m | Found at depths of about 100m off Western Australia. This is one of the most recognisable species in the genus thanks to its geometrical pattern. It is not otherwise not well known. Scalation details: body scales juxtaposed, each with single short keel; 31-35 scale rows at neck, 51-59 at midbody; 288-324 ventrals. Other: head small; body posteriorly very thick and laterally compressed; tail also laterally compressed. Coloration: dorsally dark grey with a series of narrow pale crossbars that form a pattern of about 35-40 dorsal hexagons and lateral pentagons which are centred with scattered pale spots and flecks; ventral and ventrolateral surfaces spotted and flecked with white or yellow. Reproduction: no details available [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. elegans | Elegant Seasnake | Indonesia (New Guinea), Australia (Queensland) | Avg TL 1.7m; max TL 2m | Found in deep turbid water and deep water between reefs: an eel specialist. Scalation details: head shields enlarged and regular; 3rd & 4th supralabial usually contact the eye; body scales imbricate; 37-49 rows at midbody; 345-432 ventrals, scarcely wider than adjacent body scales except anteriorly, mostly undivided. Other: anterior part of maxilla does not arch upwards; tip of fang usually projects below a line connecting the tips of the solid maxillary teeth; <9 solid maxillary teeth follow fang; body elongate, posteriorly very robust and laterally compressed. Coloration: (juveniles) overall pale brown; black head; 35-55 bands that are widest on middorsal and midventral lines and narrowest laterally, where some or all of the bands may be broken; secondary spots or narrow bands usually present to some degree in interspaces, at least on neck and tail: (adults) bands reduced to row of transverse vertebral bars or blotches; midlateral row of spots, each beneath a pale interspace, and lower row of spots, each beneath a dark dorsal bar; narrow secondary crossbars or rows of dark scales may also be present. Ventral scales usually blackish on throat and anterior part of body. Reproduction: litters of up to 30 young recorded [SOURCE: Cogger, Rasmussen et al, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. fasciatus | Striped/Banded Seasnake, Small-Headed Hydrophis | Pakistan, India, Myanmar, China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan), Thailand, Philippines (Mindanao, Sulu and Samar, Visayan Sea), Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, New Guinea) | SVL <1m | Alcala recorded this species as common in Philippine waters. In Malaysia and Thailand it is nocturnal and hunts mainly eels [Cox et al]. Scalation details: head shields regular and symmetrical; 6 supralabials, of which 4th is below centre of eye; 1 preocular, 2 postoculars, 2 anterior temporals; nuchal scales keeled; body scales imbricate and quadrangular or hexagonal in shape; 35-49 rows at midbody; Alcala cites 323-514 ventrals, but Rasmussen et al 410-514. Other: anterior part of maxilla arches upwards so that tip of fang is on line with tips of solid maxillary teeth; head relatively small and not or scarcely distinct from neck; anterior part of body cylindrical, posterior part thicker and greatly compressed. Coloration (in preservative): dorsal pattern of alternating light and dark bands; 45-70 dark bands, blackest dorsally, becoming lighter on sides and belly and narrowest on sides; head is dorsally black; lower lip barred with black; tip of tail black Reproduction: litters of 2-4 young are known [SOURCE: Alcala, Cox et al, Rasmussen et al]. |
| H. gracilis | Persian Gulf to Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Thailand, China (Fujian), South China Sea, Malay Peninsula, Indonesia (New Guinea) and Australia (Torres Strait region) | Avg TL 70cm | Cogger records this species as rare in Australian waters. Scalation details: head shields regular and large; 3rd & 4th supralabials contact the eye; body scales juxtaposed, ventrolateral scales usually larger than dorsals and either tubercular or with high keels; 29-37 rows at midbody; 220-287 ventrals, posteriorly all divided. Other: 5-6 solid maxillary teeth follow the fang; head very small; anterior part of body very slender, posterior part deeply and strongly compressed. Coloration: juveniles are overall black, with whitish dorsal bands or oval lateral spots on the lateral part of the body that become more or less complete bands posteriorly, about 40-60; in adults this pattern fades so that the bands are usually present but indistinct, the overall coloration being dorsally grey and ventrally whitish; the keels or tubercles on the ventrolateral scales are often dark brown or black [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. | |
| H. inornatus | Asia and as far south as Australia | Avg TL 70cm | Rare in Australian waters. Scalation details: head shields regular and large; 3rd & 4th supralabials contact the eye; body scales imbricate; 35-48 rows at midbody; 195-293 ventrals, scarcely wider than adjacent body scales and mostly undivided. Other: 10-13 solid maxillary teeth follow the fang; width of body fairly uniform in build. Coloration: dorsally bluish-grey, ventrally whitish; juveniles have 50-65 black bars or crossbands that may form complete rings; in adults this pattern disappears or is reduced to obscure dorsal blotches or dark bands [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. | |
| H. klossi | Kloss's Seasnake | Thailand | Scalation details: 360-430 ventrals [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al]. | |
| H. laboutei | ||||
| H. lamberti | Scalation details: 37-45 scale rows at neck, 45-56 at midbody [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al] | |||
| H. lapemoides | Persian Gulf Seasnake | Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Thailand, Singapore | Coloration: overall brownish white, with black or brown bands. [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al] | |
| H. macdowelli | Small-Headed/ McDowell's Seasnake | Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, extreme E Western Australia), east as far as New Caledonia | Avg TL 80cm | Found in turbid estuaries and inshore waters: feeds on eels and similar-shaped fish. Scalation details: head shields regular and enlarged; ?? supralabials, of which 3rd & 4th contact the eye; body scales imbricate; 35-42 rows at midbody; 252-274 ventrals, mostly undivided. Other: 5-7 solid maxillary teeth follow fang; head very small; body anteriorly very slender, posteriorly very deep and compressed. Coloration: dorsally cream with a row of dark grey to blackish dorsal blotches which each extend dorsolaterally; usually 3 lateral rows of dark grey (occasionally black-edged) markings; upper lateral row of inverted triangles or elongated rhomboid shapes; lower lateral row of small irregular blotches, each laying below a vertebral blotch; smaller row of lower lateral spots or irregular vertebral bars, each below a pale dorsal interspace. Narrow and sometimes broken secondary dorsal bars may be present in the pale interspaces. Head black; throat and anterior ventrals dark grey to black; tail with 4-5 obscure grey bands, usually with a narrow disrupted band in each of the paler interspaces. Reproduction: litter of 2-3 young [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. mamillaris | Bombay Seasnake | Pakistan | Scalation details: 302-390 [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al]. | |
| H. melanocephalus | Black-Headed/ Slender-Necked Seasnake, Black-Tailed Hydrophis | China (Guangdong, Zhejiang), Korea, Taiwan, Philippines, Japan (Ryukyu Islands, Hokkaido, Kochi), Australia | SVL 1.1-1.2m | First described as Disteira orientalis: see also note in Zhao and Adler. Alcala recorded this species as common in Philippine waters. Scalation details: rostral slightly broader than deep; frontal shield longer than broad; 6-8 supralabials, of which usually only 3rd & 4th contact the eye; 1 preocular, 1-2 postoculars, 1 anterior temporal; 2 pairs of chin-shields in contact; body scales imbricate; ventrals bituberculate; 29-37 rows at midbody; 230-355 ventrals. Other: maxillary teeth all grooved; head small; anterior part of body slender, posterior part moderately deep and compressed. Coloration: white or yellowish-white, with black bands dorsally and ventrally wider, ventrally joining on the forward third of the body to form a black band; 40-55 dark bands, blackest dorsally, becoming lighter on sides and belly and narrowest on sides; head is blackish with irregular yellow markings on front half and behind eyes, although this latter may be confined to young individuals; end of tail and much of belly also black [SOURCE: Alcala, Stejneger]. |
| H. melanosoma | Black-Banded/ Robust Seasnake | Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia (Queensland) | Avg TL 1m | Widespread in Malaysian and Indonesian waters as far as New Guinea, but in Australia found only in Torres Strait and off Cape York. Feeds on eels. Scalation details: head shields regular and enlarged; ?? supralabials, of which usually 3rd & 4th contact the eye; body scales imbricate; 37-43 rows at midbody; 240-340 ventrals, wider than adjacent body scales and mostly undivided. Other: 6-8 (Rasmussen et al claim 5-6) solid maxillary teeth follow fang; head relatively large; body anteriorly slender, posteriorly deep and compressed. Coloration: dorsally cream or yellowish, with 50-70 black crossbands, each about twice as wide as the paler interspaces; head black. Reproduction: no details available [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. obscurus | Russell's Seasnake | Myanmar | Scalation details: 298-346 ventrals [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al]. | |
| H. ornatus | Ornate Seasnake, Ornate Hydrophis
|
Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Thailand; Iran, Oman, Pakistan, China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Shandong, Hong Kong), Taiwan, Philippines (Visayan Sea), Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Indonesia (New Guinea), Australia (Queensland, Tasmania), W Pacific as far east as Kiribati | SVL 90cm; avg TL 1m
|
Alcala recorded this species as common in Philippine waters, while Wilson and Swann call it widespread on coral reefs, turbid inshore waters and estuaries. Diet is fish. The status of the subspecies is currently uncertain [Cogger]. Scalation details: head shields regular and symmetrical; ?? supralabials, of which (usually only) 3rd & 4th border the eye; 1 preocular, 2-3 postoculars, 2 anterior supratemporals; body scales imbricate and quadrangular or hexagonal in shape; 31-43 scale rows at neck, 39-54 at midbody; 246-336 ventrals, about twice as broad as adjacent body scales and mostly undivided. Other: 10-14 solid maxillary teeth follow fang; head relatively small and not or scarcely distinct from neck; moderately to heavily built body. Coloration (in preservative): dorsally light bluish grey; 30-60 wide black transverse bars or dorsal blotches, becoming obscured with age until old individuals may lack distinct pattern; lateral dark-edged ocelli and smaller dark blotches; lower half of body pale cream or whitish. Reproduction: litters of 3 young recorded [SOURCE: Alcala, Cogger, Rasmussen et al, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. o. ornatus | ||||
| H. o. godeffroyi | ||||
| H. o. maresianus | ||||
| H. o. ocellatus | ||||
| H. pacificus | Pacific Seasnake | Indonesia (New Guinea), N Australia | Avg TL 1.4m | Found in the eastern Arafura Sea, including Gulf of Carpentaria. Scalation details: head shields regular and large; ?? supralabials, of which 3rd, 4th & 5th border the eye; body scales imbricate; 39-49 rows at midbody; 320-430 ventrals, not much wider than adjacent body scales and mostly undivided. Other: 5-8 solid maxillary teeth follow fang; head relatively large; body anteriorly slender, posteriorly deep and compressed. Coloration: dorsally dark grey; (juveniles) well-defined black bands, those on the neck connected by wide black ventral region to the black throat; head dorsally black with 1-2 pale yellow spots behind each eye and a few small pale spots on the snout; (adults) ventrally whitish; dorsal and ventral colours merge along distinct midlateral line; series of dark transverse bands, expanding to become dorsal blackish blotches but continuing round body as grey bands; neck bands usually connected by black ventrals; some body bands may be divided or displaced on either side of the vertebral line; head dorsally dark gery, with obscure paler flecks. Reproduction: litter of 17 young recorded [SOURCE: Cogger, Rasmussen et al, Wilson & Swann]. |
| H. parviceps | Scalation details: 343-348 ventrals [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al]. | |||
| H. semperi | Lake Taal Hydrophis | Philippines (S Luzon) | SVL ½-¾m | Freshwater species known only from Lake Taal. Alcala recorded this species as rare. Scalation details: head shields regular and symmetrical; 7-8 supralabials, of which 4th normally beneath the eye; 2 anterior temporals; scales on hindbody imbricate with short keels and rounded or bluntly pointed tips; 37-43 rows at midbody; Alcala cites 314-556 ventrals, Rasmussen et al, 298-356; preanals enlarged. Other: head not distinct from neck; body anteriorly no more or only slightly more slender than posteriorly. Coloration: overall blackish with 50-60 white or yellowish-white bands or annuli; head is black [SOURCE: Alcala, Rasmussen et al]. |
| H. sibauensis | Indonesia (Kalimantan) | The type specimen of this species was taken from the River Sibau, which indicated to Rasmussen et al that it might be confined to freshwater, unusually for a sea snake. Scalation details: 1 pre- and postocular, 1 anterior temporal; 7 supralabials, of which 1st & 2nd are in contact with nasal, 2nd & 3rd in contact with preocular, and 3rd & 4th in contact with eye; 8-9 infralabials, of which 1st, 2nd & 3rd contact anterior pair of chin shields, and 3rd & 4th the posterior pair; single small cuneated scale between 3rd & 4th infralabials; 25-26 scale rows at neck, 35-37 at midbody; 257-264 ventrals; 45 subcaudals. Other: 7 maxillary teeth behind fang. Coloration: overall black with yellow bands. Reproduction: 7 full-term embryos found in holotype: no other information available [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al] | ||
| H. spiralis | Yellow Seasnake, Spiral Hydrophis | Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Indonesia (New Guinea) | SVL 1½-2m; max 2.7m [Daniel] | Daniel records this species as being abundant in the Persian Gulf and along the coast to Karachi, uncommon on the west coast of the Indian peninsula but common again on the east. It swims far up tidal rivers. Prey is largely eel-like fishes. Alcala noted only one record for this snake in the Philippines. Scalation details: head shields large and symmetrical; 6-8 supralabials, of which 4th normally beneath the eye; 1 preocular, usually 1 postocular, 1 large anterior temporal; body scales at thickest part of body are rounded or bluntly pointed at the tips, smooth or with a tubercle or short keel; 33-38 rows at midbody; 295-362 ventrals. Other: head moderate; body elongate and at its greatest diameter only about twice as wide as neck. Coloration: overall yellowish to greenish; 34-70 (Alcala cites 36-54) narrow black bands; ventrally yellow; head black in young, becoming yellowish in adults. Reproduction: in India, gravid females found in January and June; 5-14 young per brood, young about 40cm at birth [SOURCE: Alcala, Daniel, Rasmussen et al]. |
| H. stricticollis | Collared Seasnake | Myanmar | Scalation details: 374-452 ventrals [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al]. | |
| H. torquatus | ||||
| H. t. torquatus | Scalation details: 33-37 scale rows at neck, 41-49 at midbody; 242-306 ventrals. [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al] | |||
| H. t. aagaardi | Scalation details: 31-37 scale rows at neck, 39-47 at midbody; 276-325 ventrals. [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al] | |||
| H. t. diadema | Scalation details: 29-35 scale rows at neck, 35-42 at midbody; 271-343 ventrals. [SOURCE: Rasmussen et al] | |||
| H. vorisi | Indonesia (New Guinea), N Australia (Torres Strait) | Avg TL 60cm | In New Guinea, found in estuarine and inshore waters. Scalation details: head shields regular and enlarged; ?? supralabials, of which 3rd & 4th contact the eye; body scales imbricate; 29-35 rows at midbody; 330-350 ventrals, scarcely wider than adjacent body scales except anteriorly and mostly undivided. Other: 6 solid maxillary teeth follow fang; head very small; body elongate, anteriorly slender, posteriorly moderately deep and compressed. Coloration: overall off-white, with 70-80 blackish transverse bands on body and tail; each band circles the body and is widest dorsally and narrowest laterally, at which latter point the band is about the width of the interspace; bands may be divided or displaced on either side of the vertebral line; usually no secondary dark markings on the pale interspaces, except on tail and hindmost part of the body. Reproduction: no details available [SOURCE: Cogger, Wilson & Swann]. | |
Guide to Philippine Flora and Fauna. Volume X, Amphibians and Reptiles, Prof. Angel C Alcala, Natural Resources Management Centre, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines, 1986. Very useful field guide to the herps of this area, which is usually under-represented in literature. One slight drawback is that the photographs are black-and-white and the descriptions of colour for many species are drawn from preserved specimens: otherwise this book is to be recommended if you can obtain a copy.
Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia, Harold Cogger, 6th edition, Reed New Holland, Australia, 2000. Indispensable guide for an overview and identification details of all Australian herptiles, including the many sea snakes found around the continent.
A Complete Guide to Reptiles of Australia, Steve Wilson and Gerry Swan, Reed New Holland, Australia 2003. Portable (just) guide to Australian reptiles; less detailed than Cogger but still provides useful information not always contained in the latter.
"Diagnoses of eight new batrachians and reptiles from the Riu Kiu Archipelago, Japan", Leonhard Stejneger, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol XIV, December 12 1901. The species referred to as Disteira orientalis is here listed as Hydrophis melanocephalus.
"A new species of the sea snake genus Hydrophis (Serpentes: Elapidae) from a river in West Kalimantan (Indonesia, Borneo)", Arne Redsted Rasmussen, Mark Auliya and Wolfgang Böhme, Herpetologica 57(1), 2001. Lists details of H. sibauensis and also differences with other species based on scalation details and also coloration.
Herpetology of China, Er-Mi Zhao and Kraig Adler, Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, 1993. Contains useful distribution data for some species (H. caerulescens, H. cyanocinctus, H. fasciatus, H. gracilis, H. melanocephalus, H. ornatus).
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